1 Introduction

Aromatic medicinal plants have been utilized for centuries across various cultures for their therapeutic properties. These plants produce essential oils, which are complex mixtures of volatile compounds synthesized as secondary metabolites. Essential oils are known for their diverse applications in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food industries, and agriculture due to their antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiparasitic, insecticidal, anticancer, neuroprotective, psychophysiological, and anti-aging activities (Kumar et al., 2018). The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in these plants are responsible for their distinctive aromas and have significant pharmacological and therapeutic potentials (Zouaoui et al., 2020).

Historically, aromatic medicinal plants have played a crucial role in traditional medicine systems worldwide. For instance, plants like frankincense, myrrh, ginger, and turmeric have been used for their health-promoting properties, including protection from and alleviation of various ailments (Kieliszek et al., 2020). In North African drylands, local populations have long utilized aromatic and medicinal plants in traditional medicine and culinary practices (Zouaoui et al., 2020). The use of these plants in traditional medicine underscores their importance and the need for scientific validation of their therapeutic benefits.

Understanding the clinical applications and safety of aromatic medicinal plants is vital for several reasons. These plants are a rich source of bioactive compounds that can be harnessed for developing novel therapeutic agents. For example, antioxidants in certain aromatic plants have shown radioprotective efficacy by scavenging free radicals produced due to radiation exposure (Samarth et al., 2017). However, the safety profile of these plants needs thorough evaluation to ensure their safe use in various formulations. The complex nature of essential oils and their interaction with human genes affecting cell signaling pathways necessitates a comprehensive understanding of their pharmacokinetics, toxicological, and ecological properties (Kumar et al., 2018).

This study evaluates the efficacy and safety of aromatic medicinal plants in clinical applications. This involves a detailed analysis of their chemical composition, bioactive properties, and potential therapeutic benefits. Additionally, the study aims to standardize formulations to ensure consistency and safety in their use. By compiling and analyzing data from various sources, including databases like AromaDb, this study expects to provide a valuable resource for researchers, health professionals, and industry stakeholders interested in the development of safe and effective aromatic plant-based therapies.

2 Bioactive Compounds in Aromatic Medicinal Plants

2.1 Identification of key bioactive compounds

Essential oils (EOs) are complex mixtures of volatile substances formed by the secondary metabolism of aromatic plants. These oils are known for their diverse pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties (Oliveira et al., 2023). The primary constituents of EOs include monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, benzenoids, and phenylpropanoids. For instance, species from the Amaranthaceae family are rich in compounds such as α-terpinene, δ-3-carene, limonene, thymol, and carvacrol, which exhibit significant antibacterial, antiviral, and anticancer effects. Similarly, Origanum majorana L. essential oils have demonstrated remarkable antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities, supporting their traditional medicinal uses (Bouyahya et al., 2020a).

Terpenoids and phenolic compounds are other critical bioactive constituents found in aromatic medicinal plants. These compounds are known for their therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial effects. For example, Anethum sowa contains various terpenoids and phenolics that contribute to its antioxidant, antiviral, and antibacterial activities (Saleh‐e‐In and Choi, 2021). Additionally, the genus Adenosma is rich in phenolic acids, flavonoids, and terpenoids, which have shown potential in treating gastrointestinal disorders, hepatitis, and skin problems (Wang et al., 2021).

2.2 Methods of extraction and isolation

Steam distillation is a conventional method used to extract essential oils from aromatic plants. This technique involves passing steam through plant material to vaporize the volatile compounds, which are then condensed and collected. The yield and chemical composition of the extracted oils can be influenced by factors such as the plant's physiological state and the distillation conditions (Oliveira et al., 2023). For instance, the yield of essential oils from Deverra species was found to vary significantly based on the sample preparation and extraction process.

Solvent extraction techniques, including the use of organic solvents and innovative non-thermal methods, are employed to isolate bioactive compounds from plants. These methods are particularly useful for extracting compounds with varying hydrophobic or lipophilic characteristics. Green extraction techniques, such as ultrasound-assisted and supercritical CO₂ extraction, have been proposed to improve yield and quality while reducing energy consumption and solvent use (Giacometti et al., 2018). These methods are effective in isolating both essential oils and other bioactive compounds from Mediterranean herbs.

2.3 Chemical Profiling and Standardization

Chromatographic techniques, such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), are essential for the chemical profiling and standardization of bioactive compounds in aromatic medicinal plants. These methods allow for the identification and quantification of various compounds, ensuring the consistency and quality of plant extracts. For example, GC-MS and HPLC have been used to identify terpenoids and phenolic acids in Origanum compactum, linking these compounds to the plant's antimicrobial and antioxidant activities (Bouyahya et al., 2020b).

Spectroscopic techniques, including liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), are also employed for the detailed analysis of bioactive compounds. LC-MS provides a sensitive and selective method for the simultaneous determination of phenolic compounds in plant residues, enabling accurate quality control (Irakli et al., 2021). This technique has been used to identify and quantify phenolic acids, flavonoids, and phenolic diterpenes in solid residues from the essential oil industry, highlighting its utility in the standardization of plant extracts. By employing these methods, researchers can ensure the efficacy and safety of aromatic medicinal plants in clinical applications, providing reference for their integration into modern therapeutic practices.

3 Clinical Applications of Aromatic Medicinal Plants

3.1 Use in respiratory diseases

Aromatic medicinal plants have shown significant potential in treating asthma. Essential oils derived from plants have been found to modulate cytokine responses, which are crucial in managing asthma. These oils can regulate the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-8) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-10), thereby reducing airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness (Gandhi et al., 2020). Additionally, traditional Chinese medicine, such as Farfarae flos, has been used to treat asthma due to its anti-inflammatory properties (Liu et al., 2020).

Aromatic plants are also effective in treating bronchitis and colds. For instance, Eupatorium lindleyanum has been traditionally used in China to treat chronic bronchitis and lobar pneumonia due to its anti-inflammatory and anti-tussive properties (Wang et al., 2020). Moreover, essential oils from plants like menthol, eucalyptus, and camphor have been shown to provide symptomatic relief for upper respiratory tract infections, enhancing sleep quality and aiding recovery (Smith and Matthews, 2022). These oils help in decongestion and provide a cooling effect, which is beneficial for patients suffering from colds and bronchitis.

3.2 Dermatological applications

Aromatic medicinal plants have long been used to treat various skin infections. For example, Plectranthus madagascariensis has demonstrated antibacterial activity against bacteria associated with wound infections, making it an important plant for treating skin infections. Extracts and essential oils from this plant contain multiple active compounds, such as polyphenols and diterpenes like rosmarinic acid, which have inhibitory effects on bacteria related to wound infections, especially methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (Lambrechts and Lall, 2021). Additionally, aromatic plants are used to promote wound healing. The antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties of Plectranthus madagascariensis make it particularly effective in enhancing wound healing. The main components in the plant’s essential oil, such as monoterpene oxides and diterpenes, exhibit strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, which help reduce inflammation and free radical production during the wound healing process, thereby accelerating recovery (Mohammed et al., 2022).

3.3 Applications in mental health

Aromatic plants are widely used in aromatherapy to alleviate anxiety and stress. As an alternative therapy, aromatherapy utilizes essential oils extracted from plants, such as frankincense, myrrh, ginger, and turmeric, and is extensively applied to relieve anxiety and stress. Research has found that aromatherapy not only improves mental health but also transmits signals through the olfactory system, acting on the brain to alleviate symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress (Kieliszek et al., 2020; Nema et al., 2021). Essential oils extracted from plants, such as frankincense and ginger oil, have shown significant anti-anxiety and anti-stress effects. Studies suggest that aromatherapy can effectively reduce anxiety symptoms and promote mental relaxation through interactions with the nervous system (Kumar et al., 2018).

Multiple studies have indicated that essential oils from plants like lavender and myrtle are widely used in aromatherapy, with notable calming and mood-soothing effects, particularly effective in managing anxiety in postoperative patients (Moradifar et al., 2021). Frankincense and myrrh have also gained attention for their antidepressant and anti-anxiety properties. Some research has further shown that long-term use of aromatic essential oils, such as inhalation through a diffuser, can significantly reduce stress hormone levels, such as cortisol, thereby effectively relieving stress (Siska et al., 2023).

4 Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Interaction with the central nervous system

Aromatic medicinal plants have shown significant potential in modulating neurotransmitter activity, which is crucial for treating neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and depression. For instance, Crocus sativus, Nigella sativa, and Curcuma longa have been traditionally used to enhance neural functions by increasing antioxidant levels and inhibiting acetylcholinesterase activity, thereby improving neurotransmitter balance (Khazdair et al., 2018). Additionally, compounds like Aromatic-turmerone and Apocynin have been identified as promising agents for modulating microglial polarization, which plays a role in neurotransmitter regulation (Alghamdi et al., 2022).

Aromatic compounds derived from medicinal plants, such as flavonoids found in Trichilia catigua and Turnera diffusa, interact with multiple targets in the central nervous system (CNS). These interactions result in broad neuroprotection mediated by complementary processes and synergistic interactions, which can prevent and manage neurodegenerative diseases (Bernardo et al., 2021). Furthermore, Andrographolide, a compound extracted from Andrographis paniculata, has been shown to cross the blood-brain barrier and reduce neuroinflammatory responses, thereby protecting brain function (Lu et al., 2019).

4.2 Anti-inflammatory properties

Medicinal plants exhibit anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α. For example, the neuroprotective effects of certain spice herbs are attributed to their ability to reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines and total nitrite generation, which are crucial in managing neuroinflammation (Khazdair et al., 2018). A study on peppermint essential oil found that it can reduce airway inflammation induced by exposure to PM10 (particulate matter) by inhibiting the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway (Figure 1). The research showed that peppermint essential oil effectively decreases the production of IL-6 and other pro-inflammatory cytokines, alleviating airway remodeling and collagen deposition (Kim et al., 2020). Similarly, Brazilian medicinal plants have been shown to inhibit inflammatory mediators like nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), further supporting their anti-inflammatory potential (Ribeiro et al., 2018).

The modulation of the immune response by medicinal plants involves the suppression of cellular and humoral immunity, lymphocyte activation, and the propagation of apoptosis. Curcumin from Curcuma longa and epigallocatechin-3-gallate from Camellia sinensis are notable examples that exhibit these immunomodulatoryactions (Tasneem et al., 2019). Additionally, 1,2,4-Trimethoxybenzene, an active ingredient from essential oils, selectively inhibits the NLRP3 inflammasome, thereby modulating the immune response and reducing inflammation in diseases like multiplesclerosis (Pan et al., 2021).

4.3 Antimicrobial activity

Aromatic medicinal plants possess antimicrobial properties that are effective against bacterial infections. The bioactive compounds in these plants disrupt bacterial cell walls, inhibit protein synthesis, and interfere with bacterial DNA replication. For instance, the essential oils from various aromatic plants have demonstrated significant antibacterial activity by targeting bacterial cell membranes and inhibiting their growth (Pan et al., 2021).

In addition to their antibacterial properties, aromatic medicinal plants also exhibit antiviral and antifungal activities. The essential oils and bioactive compounds from these plants can inhibit the replication of viruses and the growth of fungal pathogens. For example, the phenolic compounds in Trichilia catigua and Turnera diffusa have shown potential in reducing viral and fungal infections by disrupting their cellular processes and enhancing the host's immune response (Bernardo et al., 2021). By understanding these mechanisms of action, we can better appreciate the clinical applications and safety of aromatic medicinal plants in treating various diseases.

5 Case Studies

5.1 Study on the anti-inflammatory effects of essential oils from aromatic medicinal plants

The NLRP3 inflammasome plays a crucial role in various inflammatory diseases, such as multiple sclerosis. However, selective inhibitors targeting NLRP3 are currently limited, and most therapeutic drugs focus on downstream molecules, which may lead to side effects (Harrison et al., 2023). Therefore, developing compounds that directly inhibit NLRP3 has become a key research focus. Essential oils from aromatic plants have garnered attention for their anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial pharmacological properties. Pan et al. (2021) isolated 1,2,4-trimethoxybenzene (1,2,4-TTB), a major component from Paulownia essential oil , and discovered through screening that it can selectively inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

The experimental results showed that 1,2,4-TTB effectively reduced inflammatory responses by inhibiting the interaction between NLRP3 and ASC, thus preventing NLRP3 inflammasome assembly. Additionally, 1,2,4-TTB did not affect the activation of the AIM2 inflammasome, demonstrating its high selectivity. In vivo experiments revealed that 1,2,4-TTB administration significantly alleviated clinical symptoms and demyelination in EAE mice (Figure 2), suggesting its potential as a candidate drug for treating multiple sclerosis and other NLRP3-related diseases (Pan et al., 2021). This study offers new insights into NLRP3 inflammasome-targeted therapies, particularly in the field of neuroinflammation.

Pan et al. (2021) demonstrates the inhibitory effect of 1,2,4-trimethoxybenzene (1,2,4-TTB) on NLRP3 inflammasome activation in an EAE mouse model. Immunofluorescence staining shows that 1,2,4-TTB significantly reduced the expression and aggregation of ASC in the spinal cord. Western blot results further confirmed that the levels of NLRP3, ASC, and cleaved Caspase-1 were notably decreased in the 1,2,4-TTB treatment group. Additionally, qPCR analysis showed that 1,2,4-TTB suppressed the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and IL-17a while upregulating the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-4. These findings indicate that 1,2,4-TTB alleviated local inflammatory responses by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation, thereby reducing the pathological symptoms in EAE mice.

5.2 Successful case of aromatherapy alleviating preoperative anxiety

Preoperative anxiety is common among patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy, which may lead to cardiovascular issues and increase the risk of surgical complications. In recent years, aromatherapy has gradually been applied in the medical field as a complementary treatment method. Studies have shown that aromatherapy, particularly lavender essential oil, can significantly reduce preoperative anxiety. Short-term inhalation of aromatherapy has been found to be especially effective and is recommended for clinical application to help alleviate anxiety symptoms (Eslami et al., 2018; Guo et al., 2020).

Eslami et al. (2018) explored the effect of aromatherapy on preoperative anxiety. A total of 90 patients were recruited for the trial and divided into three groups: one group received aromatherapy with Lavandula angustifolia extract, another group received Citrus aurantium extract, and the control group received odorless oil as a placebo. The Spielberg Anxiety Questionnaire was used to assess the patients' anxiety levels before and after the aromatherapy intervention. The results showed that anxiety levels significantly decreased in both the Lavandula angustifolia and Citrus aurantium groups after the intervention, with mean changes in state anxiety and trait anxiety of -12.8 and -13, respectively, both with significant statistical differences (P<0.001) (Table 1). In contrast, anxiety levels in the control group showed almost no change, with values of only 1 and 0.5 (Eslami et al., 2018). The results confirmed that aromatherapy significantly reduced preoperative anxiety, and both essential oils were similarly effective, with no significant difference compared to the control group.

The study indicates that the use of essential oils in medical settings can effectively reduce patient anxiety, with both lavender and lime showing similar effects. This approach serves as a non-invasive, low-cost intervention for preoperative anxiety. It has demonstrated great potential in alleviating surgery-related anxiety, contributing to an improved preoperative experience and overall well-being of patients.

6 Safety and Toxicology

6.1 Acute and chronic toxicity studies

Aromatic medicinal plants and their essential oils (EOs) have been widely studied for their therapeutic benefits, but their safety profiles, particularly regarding acute and chronic toxicity, are crucial for clinical applications. For instance, the essential oils from Artemisia campestris, Pulicaria arabica, and Saccocalyx satureioides have shown significant insecticidal properties, indicating potential toxicity at certain concentrations (Ammar et al., 2020). Additionally, the use of medicinal plants during pregnancy has raised concerns due to potential teratogenic and embryotoxic effects. Studies have highlighted that certain plants, such as Aloe vera and Ginkgo biloba, should be avoided during pregnancy due to their adverse effects on fetal development (Bernstein et al., 2020). These findings underscore the importance of conducting comprehensive toxicity studies to establish safe usage guidelines.

6.2 Allergic reactions and sensitivities

Allergic reactions to aromatic medicinal plants are a significant safety concern. Volatile compounds in these plants, such as limonene, linalool, and citronellol, have been identified as potential allergens. For example, a study on lavender, mint, sage, hyssop, and St John’s wort revealed that the levels of these allergens in some plants exceeded safe values recommended by legislation, posing risks for sensitive individuals (Burdějová and Vítová, 2019). This highlights the need for careful monitoring and regulation of allergenic compounds in medicinal plant extracts to prevent adverse reactions in susceptible populations.

6.3 Safe dosage and administration guidelines

Establishing safe dosage and administration guidelines for aromatic medicinal plants is essential to maximize their therapeutic benefits while minimizing risks. The extraction methods and the concentration of bioactive compounds play a critical role in determining the safety of these plants. Innovative non-thermal extraction techniques, such as ultrasound and high-pressure extraction, have been proposed to enhance the yield and quality of essential oils while avoiding toxic chemicals (Giacometti et al., 2018). Furthermore, the database AromaDb provides valuable information on the pharmacokinetics, toxicological, and ecological properties of essential oils and aroma compounds, aiding in the development of safe and effective formulations (Kumar et al., 2018). These resources are instrumental in guiding the safe use of aromatic medicinal plants in clinical settings.

7 Standard Formulation of Aromatic Medicinal Plants

7.1 Development of standard formulations

The selection of active ingredients in aromatic medicinal plants is crucial for ensuring efficacy and safety. Active ingredients are typically chosen based on their bioactive properties and traditional uses. For instance, menthol from peppermint and luteolin from chamomile are commonly used due to their well-documented therapeutic effects (Mora-Flórez et al., 2023). Additionally, alkaloids are often selected as chemical markers due to their significant pharmacological activities and their role in quality control (Osman et al., 2019). The presence of essential oils, which contain a variety of bioactive compounds, also plays a significant role in the selection process (Ammar et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2023).

Dosage standardization is essential to ensure consistent therapeutic outcomes. Methods such as encapsulation using hydrocolloids can help in achieving uniform dosage forms. For example, encapsulating menthol and luteolin using maltodextrin-sodium caseinate or maltodextrin-soy protein has been shown to produce powders with desirable properties like high circularity, low moisture, and adequate solubility (Mora-Flórez et al., 2023). Additionally, modern extraction techniques and biostimulants can enhance the yield and consistency of active ingredients, thereby aiding in dosage standardization (Fierăscu et al., 2021; Shahrajabian and Sun, 2022).

7.2 Quality control in production

Quality control measures are vital to ensure the purity and potency of aromatic medicinal plants. Techniques such as gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) are used to analyze the chemical composition of essential oils, ensuring the presence of desired bioactive compounds and the absence of contaminants (Ammar et al., 2020). The use of chemical markers, such as alkaloids, further aids in verifying the botanical sources and assessing the quality of the raw materials and finished products (Osman et al., 2019).

Detecting and removing contaminants is a critical aspect of quality control. Methods such as GC-MS can identify potential toxicants and adulterants in herbal medicines (Osman et al., 2019). Additionally, the use of biostimulants has been shown to improve the overall health of plants, potentially reducing the need for chemical pesticides and thereby lowering the risk of contamination (Shahrajabian and Sun, 2022).

7.3 Regulatory frameworks and guidelines

International standards play a crucial role in the regulation of herbal medicines. Organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) provide guidelines for the quality control of herbal products, including the assessment of purity, potency, and safety. These standards help ensure that herbal medicines meet global quality benchmarks, facilitating their acceptance and use worldwide (Ammar et al., 2020).

National regulations vary but generally align with international standards to ensure the safety and efficacy of herbal medicines. Compliance with these regulations involves rigorous testing and documentation to verify the quality of the products. For instance, the use of databases like AromaDb can aid in the identification and standardization of aroma compounds, ensuring compliance with national and international guidelines (Kumar et al., 2018). Additionally, the implementation of modern extraction techniques and quality control measures can help manufacturers meet regulatory requirements (Fierăscu et al., 2021). By adhering to these guidelines and employing advanced techniques, the development and production of standard formulations of aromatic medicinal plants can be optimized, ensuring their safety, efficacy, and quality.

8 Challenges and Future Prospects in Aromatic Plant Research

8.1 Current limitations in clinical application

Despite the promising therapeutic potential of aromatic medicinal plants, several limitations hinder their widespread clinical application. One significant challenge is the variability in the chemical composition of essential oils and plant extracts, which can be influenced by factors such as plant species, geographical location, and extraction methods (Giacometti et al., 2018; Fierăscu et al., 2021). This variability complicates the standardization of formulations and dosage, which is crucial for clinical use. Additionally, there is a lack of comprehensive clinical trials that validate the efficacy and safety of these plant-based treatments, leading to skepticism within the medical community (Boukhatem and Setzer, 2020; Kieliszek et al., 2020). The potential for adverse reactions and interactions with conventional drugs also poses a significant barrier to their acceptance and integration into mainstream medicine (Kumar et al., 2018).

8.2 Potential for novel therapeutic uses

Despite these challenges, aromatic medicinal plants hold immense potential for novel therapeutic applications. Their diverse bioactive compounds, including phenolics, terpenes, and alkaloids, exhibit a wide range of biological activities such as antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects (Boukhatem and Setzer, 2020; Kieliszek et al., 2020; Taghouti et al., 2022). For instance, certain essential oils have shown promise in inhibiting the replication of viruses, including coronaviruses, suggesting their potential as alternative antiviral agents (Boukhatem and Setzer, 2020). Moreover, the integration of these natural compounds into nanotechnology and modern drug delivery systems could enhance their bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy (Fierăscu et al., 2021). The development of databases like AromaDb, which catalog the phytochemistry and therapeutic potentials of various aromatic plants, can facilitate the discovery and development of new medicinal formulations (Kumar et al., 2018).

8.3 Future directions for safety and efficacy research

To overcome the current limitations and fully harness the therapeutic potential of aromatic medicinal plants, future research should focus on several key areas. There is a need for rigorous clinical trials to establish the safety and efficacy of these plant-based treatments in humans (Boukhatem and Setzer, 2020; Kieliszek et al., 2020). Standardization of extraction methods and formulation processes is also crucial to ensure consistency and reliability in clinical applications (Giacometti et al., 2018; Fierăscu et al., 2021). Additionally, interdisciplinary research involving pharmacologists, botanists, and chemists can help elucidate the mechanisms of action of these bioactive compounds and identify potential drug interactions (Kumar et al., 2018; Kisiriko et al., 2021). Advancements in green extraction technologies and sustainable cultivation practices can support the large-scale production of high-quality plant extracts, making them more accessible for therapeutic use (Giacometti et al., 2018; Taghouti et al., 2022).

9 Concluding Remarks

The research on aromatic medicinal plants has highlighted their significant potential as alternative sources of bioactive compounds. These plants have been shown to possess various biological activities, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, which can be harnessed for both medical and industrial applications. The efficacy of these plants is largely attributed to their essential oils and other secondary metabolites, which have been extensively studied for their health-promoting properties. Additionally, the sustainable management of waste generated from the production of these plants has been identified as a critical area for future research, with potential applications in various industries.

The findings from the studies suggest that aromatic medicinal plants can serve as effective adjuvants to conventional synthetic drugs, potentially enhancing their efficacy and reducing side effects. The integration of these plants into clinical practice could offer a more holistic approach to patient care, leveraging their natural bioactive compounds to support overall health. However, the complexity of these products necessitates rigorous safety and efficacy assessments to ensure their quality and reliability. Clinicians should be aware of the potential benefits and limitations of these plants and consider them as part of a broader therapeutic strategy.

The future of aromatic medicinal plants looks promising, with ongoing research focusing on innovative applications and sustainable practices. The development of modern extraction techniques and the valorization of plant residues are expected to enhance the economic and environmental sustainability of this sector. Moreover, there is a growing interest in understanding the sensory properties of essential oils and their applications in aromatherapy and the food industry, which could further expand the use of these plants. Continued interdisciplinary collaboration and empirical research will be essential to fully realize the potential of aromatic medicinal plants in both clinical and industrial contexts.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to colleagues who read the manuscript and suggested revisions, and whose feedback made the manuscript clearer and neater. We also thank to two anonymous peer reviewers for their critical assessment and constructive suggestions on our manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

Alghamdi S.S., Suliman R.S., Aljammaz N.A., Kahtani K.M., Aljatli D.A., and Albadrani G.M., 2022, Natural products as novel neuroprotective agents; computational predictions of the molecular targets, ADME properties, and safety profile, Plants, 11(4): 549. 

https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11040549

Ammar S., Noui H., Djamel S., Madani S., Maggi F., Bruno M., Romano D., Canale A., Pavela R., and Benelli G., 2020, Essential oils from three Algerian medicinal plants (Artemisia campestris, Pulicaria arabica, and Saccocalyx satureioides) as new botanical insecticides?, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27: 26594-26604.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09064-w

Bernardo J., Malheiro I., Videira R.A., Valentão P., Santos A.C., Veiga F., and Andrade P.B., 2021, Trichilia catigua and Turnera diffusa extracts: In vitro inhibition of tyrosinase, antiglycation activity and effects on enzymes and pathways engaged in the neuroinflammatory process, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 271: 113865. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.113865

Bernstein N., Akram M., Yaniv‐Bachrach Z., and Daniyal M., 2021, Is it safe to consume traditional medicinal plants during pregnancy?, Phytotherapy Research, 35(4): 1908-1924. 

https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6935

Boukhatem M.N., and Setzer W.N., 2020, Aromatic herbs, medicinal plant-derived essential oils, and phytochemical extracts as potential therapies for coronaviruses: future perspectives, Plants, 9(6): 800. 

https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9060800

Bouyahya A., Chamkhi I., Benali T., Guaouguaou F., Balahbib A., Omari N., Taha D., Belmehdi O., Ghokhan Z., and Menyiy N., 2020a, Traditional use, phytochemistry, toxicology, and pharmacology of Origanum majorana L., Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 265: 113318. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113318

Bouyahya A., Zengin G., Belmehdi O., Bourais I., Chamkhi I., Taha D., Benali T., Dakka N., and Bakri Y., 2020b, Origanum compactum Benth., from traditional use to biotechnological applications, Journal of Food Biochemistry, 44(8): e13251. 

https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13251

Burdejova L., and Vitova E., 2020, Assessment of volatile compounds with emphasis on volatile allergens in selected dried medicinal plants using solid phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, Chemical Papers, 74: 1679-1690. 

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11696-019-01020-4

Eslami J., Ebrahimi A., Hosseinkhani A., Khazaei Z., and Darvishi I., 2018, The effect of aromatherapy using Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Miller) and Citrus aurantium L. extracts to treat anxiety of patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy: A randomized clinical trial in Iran, Biomedical Research and Therapy, 5(3): 2096-2110. 

https://doi.org/10.15419/BMRAT.V5I3.423

Fierascu R.C., Fierascu I., Baroi A.M., and Ortan A., 2021, Selected aspects related to medicinal and aromatic plants as alternative sources of bioactive compounds, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(4): 1521. 

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041521

Gandhi G., Vasconcelos A., Haran G., Calisto V., Jothi G., Quintans J., Cuevas L., Narain N., Júnior L., Cipolotti R., and Gurgel R., 2020, Essential oils and its bioactive compounds modulating cytokines: A systematic review on anti-asthmatic and immunomodulatory properties, Phytomedicine, 73: 152854. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PHYMED.2019.152854

Giacometti J., Kovačević D., Putnik P., Gabrić D., Bilušić T., Krešić G., Stulić V., Barba F., Chemat F., Barbosa‐Cánovas G., and Jambrak A., 2018, Extraction of bioactive compounds and essential oils from Mediterranean herbs by conventional and green innovative techniques: A review, Food Research International, 113: 245-262. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.06.036

Guo P., Li P., Zhang X., Liu N., Wang J., Yang S., Yu L., and Zhang W., 2020, The effectiveness of aromatherapy on preoperative anxiety in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials, International Journal of Nursing Studies, 111: 103747. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2020.103747

Harrison D., Billinton A., Bock M., Doedens J., Gabel C., Holloway M., Porter R., Reader V., Scanlon J., Schooley K., and Watt A., 2023, Discovery of clinical candidate NT-0796, a brain-penetrant and highly potent NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitor for neuroinflammatory disorders, Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 66(21): 14897-14911. 

https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01398

Irakli M., Skendi A., Bouloumpasi E., Chatzopoulou P., and Biliaderis C.G., 2021, LC-MS identification and quantification of phenolic compounds in solid residues from the essential oil industry, Antioxidants, 10(12): 2016. 

https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10122016

Khazdair M.R., Anaeigoudari A., Hashemzehi M., and Mohebbati R., 2019, Neuroprotective potency of some spice herbs, a literature review, Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 9(2): 98-105. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JTCME.2018.01.002

Kieliszek M., Edris A., Kot A.M., and Piwowarek K., 2020, Biological activity of some aromatic plants and their metabolites, with an emphasis on health-promoting properties, Molecules, 25(11): 2478. 

https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25112478

Kim M.H., Park S.J., and Yang W.M., 2020, Inhalation of essential oil from Mentha piperita ameliorates PM10-exposed asthma by targeting IL-6/JAK2/STAT3 pathway based on a network pharmacological analysis, Pharmaceuticals, 14(1): 2. 

https://doi.org/10.3390/ph14010002

Kisiriko M., Anastasiadi M., Terry L.A., Yasri A., Beale M.H., and Ward J.L., 2021, Phenolics from medicinal and aromatic plants: Characterisation and potential as biostimulants and bioprotectants, Molecules, 26(21): 6343. 

https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26216343

Kumar Y., Prakash O., Tripathi H., Tandon S., Gupta M., Rahman L., Lal R., Semwal M., Darokar M., and Khan F., 2018, AromaDb: A database of medicinal and aromatic plant’s aroma molecules with phytochemistry and therapeutic potentials, Frontiers in Plant Science, 9: 1081. 

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01081

Lambrechts I.A., and Lall N., 2021, Traditional usage and biological activity of Plectranthus madagascariensis and its varieties: A review, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 269: 113663. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113663

Liu C., Wu H., Wang L., Luo H., Lu Y., Zhang Q., Tang L., and Wang Z., 2020, Farfarae Flos: A review of botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 260: 113038. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113038

Lu J., Ma Y., Wu J., Huang H., Wang X., Chen Z., Chen J., He H., and Huang C., 2019, A review for the neuroprotective effects of andrographolide in the central nervous system, Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 117: 109078. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2019.109078

Mohammed H.A., Qureshi K.A., Ali H.M., Al-Omar M.S., Khan O., and Mohammed S.A., 2022, Bio-evaluation of the wound healing activity of Artemisia judaica L. as part of the plant’s use in traditional medicine; phytochemical, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antibiofilm properties of the plant’s essential oils, Antioxidants, 11(2): 332. 

https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11020332

Moradifar N., Amraei M., Karami K., Kalantari Shahijan M., Amin A., and Nadri S., 2021, Aromatherapy with lavender essential oil in patients with surgery-related anxiety: a systematic review, Research Journal of Pharmacognosy, 8(4): 101-111. 

https://doi.org/10.22127/RJP.2021.293248.1730

Mora-Flórez L.S., Cabrera-Rodríguez D., and Hernández-Carrión M., 2023, Encapsulation of menthol and luteolin using hydrocolloids as wall material to formulate instant aromatic beverages, Foods, 12(10): 2080. 

https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12102080

Nema P., Jain S., Vishwakarma H., Purohit A., and Jain P.K., 2021, A complete review on aromatherapy: a complementary alternative medication therapy with recent trend, International Journal of Medical Sciences and Pharma Research, 7(4): 1-7. 

https://doi.org/10.22270/ijmspr.v7i4.28

Santana de Oliveira M., Vostinaru O., Rigano D., and de Aguiar Andrade E.H., 2023, Bioactive compounds present in essential oils: advances and pharmacological applications, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 14: 1130097. 

https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2023.1130097

Osman A.G., Haider S., Chittiboyina A.G., and Khan I.A., 2019, Utility of alkaloids as chemical and biomarkers for quality, efficacy, and safety assessment of botanical ingredients, Phytomedicine, 54: 347-356. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2018.03.064

Pan R., Kong X., Cheng Y., Du L., Wang Z., Yuan C., Cheng J., Yuan Z., Zhang H., and Liao Y., 2021, 1, 2, 4-Trimethoxybenzene selectively inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation and attenuates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, Acta Pharmacologica Sinica, 42(11): 1769-1779. 

https://doi.org/10.1038/s41401-021-00613-8

Ribeiro V.P., Arruda C., Abd El-Salam M., and Bastos J.K., 2018, Brazilian medicinal plants with corroborated anti-inflammatory activities: a review, Pharmaceutical Biology, 56(1): 253-268.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13880209.2018.1454480

Saleh-E-In M.M., and Choi Y.E., 2021, Anethum sowa Roxb. ex fleming: A review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological and toxicological activities, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 280: 113967. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.113967

Samarth R.M., Samarth M., and Matsumoto Y., 2017, Medicinally important aromatic plants with radioprotective activity, Future Science OA, 3(4): FSO247. 

https://doi.org/10.4155/fsoa-2017-0061

Shahrajabian M.H., and Sun W., 2022, Sustainable approaches to boost yield and chemical constituents of aromatic and medicinal plants by application of biostimulants, Recent Advances in Food Nutrition & Agriculture, 13(2): 72-92. 

https://doi.org/10.2174/2772574X13666221004151822

Siska S., Bariroh T., and Supandi S., 2023, The effect of long exposure reed diffuser essential oil Plumeria alba on cortisol levels of male Wistar rats, Borneo Journal of Pharmacy, 6(2): 120-124. 

https://doi.org/10.33084/bjop.v6i2.4387

Smith A., and Matthews O., 2022, Aromatic ointments for the common cold: what does the science say?, Drugs in Context, 11. 

https://doi.org/10.7573/dic.2022-5-6

Taghouti I., Cristobal R., Brenko A., Stara K., Markos N., Chapelet B., Hamrouni L., Buršić D., and Bonet J., 2022, The market evolution of medicinal and aromatic plants: A global supply chain analysis and an application of the delphi method in the Mediterranean area, Forests, 13(5): 808. 

https://doi.org/10.3390/f13050808

Tasneem S., Liu B., Li B., Choudhary M.I., and Wang W., 2019, Molecular pharmacology of inflammation: medicinal plants as anti-inflammatory agents, Pharmacological Research, 139: 126-140. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2018.11.001

Wang C., Zhang H., Liu Q., Qi J., Zhuang H., Gou Y., Wang H., and Wang Y., 2021, A review of the aromatic genus Adenosma: geographical distribution, traditional uses, phytochemistry and biological activities, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 275: 114075. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.114075

Wang X., Ma S., Lai F., Wang Y., and Lou C., 2020, Traditional applications, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of Eupatorium lindleyanum DC.: A comprehensive review, Frontiers in Pharmacology, 8: 577124. 

https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.577124

Zhang J., Zhang M., Bhandari B., and Wang M., 2024, Basic sensory properties of essential oils from aromatic plants and their applications: A critical review, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 64(20): 6990-7003. 

https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2023.2177611

Zouaoui N., Chenchouni H., Bouguerra A., Massouras T., and Barkat M., 2020, Characterization of volatile organic compounds from six aromatic and medicinal plant species growing wild in North African drylands, NFS Journal, 18: 19-28. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nfs.2019.12.001